Everything about Titus totally explained
Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, commonly known as
Titus (
December 30 39 –
September 13 81), was a
Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from
79 until his death in
81. Titus was the second emperor of the
Flavian dynasty, which ruled the
Roman Empire between
69 and
96, encompassing the reigns of Titus's father
Vespasian (69–79), Titus himself (79–81) and his younger brother
Domitian (81–96).
Prior to becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in
Judaea during the
First Jewish-Roman War, which was fought between
67 and
70. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor
Nero on
June 9 68, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during the
Year of the Four Emperors. When Vespasian was declared emperor on
December 21 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion, which he did in
70, successfully
besieging and destroying the city and the
Temple of
Jerusalem. For this achievement Titus was awarded a
triumph; the
Arch of Titus commemorates his victory to this day.
Under the rule of his father, Titus gained infamy in Rome serving as
prefect of the Roman imperial
bodyguard, known as the
Praetorian Guard, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen
Berenice. Despite concerns over his character, however, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on
June 23 79, and was considered a good emperor by
Suetonius and other contemporary historians. In this role he's best known for his public building program in Rome—completing the
Flavian Amphitheatre, otherwise known as the Colosseum— and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the
Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and the fire of Rome of
80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a
fever on
September 13 81. He was
deified by the
Roman Senate and succeeded by his younger brother
Domitian.
Early life
Titus was born in
Rome, probably on
30 December 39, as the eldest son of
Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and
Domitilla the Elder. He had one older sister,
Domitilla the Younger (b. 39), and one younger brother, also named
Titus Flavius Domitianus (b. 51), but commonly referred to as Domitian.
Decades of civil war during the
1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old artistocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early part of the
1st century. One such family was the
gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty. Titus's great-grandfather,
Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a
centurion under
Pompey during
Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the
Battle of Pharsalus in
48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son
Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible
equestrian status through his services as
tax collector in Asia and banker in
Helvetia. By marrying
Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious
patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons
Titus Flavius Sabinus II and
Vespasian to the
senatorial rank. What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down to us by
Suetonius, who records that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of
Britannicus, the son of emperor
Claudius, who would be murdered by
Nero in
55. The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus, the night he was murdered, and sipped of the
poison that was handed to him.
Military career
From
c. 57 to
59 he was a military
tribune in
Germania. He also served in
Britannia, perhaps arriving
c. 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of
Boudica. In
c. 63 he returned to Rome and married Arrecina Tertulla, daughter of a former
Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. She died
c. 65. Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to
Nero. Her uncle
Barea Soranus and his daughter
Servilia were among those who perished after the failed
Pisonian conspiracy of
65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never re-married. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was
Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of
quaestor. The pro-Roman king
Agrippa II and his sister
Berenice fled the city to
Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the
fifth and
tenth legions. He was later joined by Titus at
Ptolemais, bringing with him the
fifteenth legion. With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem. Josephus himself surrendered to Vespasian, became a prisoner and provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt. By
68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman army, with decisive victories won at
Taricheae and
Gamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.
Year of the Four Emperors
The last and most significant fortress of
Jewish resistance was Jerusalem. However the campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death. Almost simultaneously, the
Roman Senate had declared
Galba, then governor of
Hispania, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided to await further orders, and sent Titus to greet the new
princeps. Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by
Otho, governor of
Lusitania, and that
Vitellius and his armies in
Germania were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea. Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the
First Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide. When the news spread across the armies in Judaea and
Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on
July 1 69. Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with
Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to
Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion. By the end of 69 the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on
December 21, thus ending the
Year of the Four Emperors.
Siege of Jerusalem
Meanwhile the Jews had become embroiled in a
civil conflict of their own, splitting the resistance in the city among two factions; the
Sicarii led by
Simon Bar Giora, and the
Zealots led by
John of Gischala. Titus seized the opportunity to begin the
assault on Jerusalem. The Roman army was joined by the
twelfth legion, which was previously defeated under
Cestius Gallus, and from Alexandria Vespasian sent
Tiberius Julius Alexander, governor of Ægyptus, to act as Titus's second in command. Titus surrounded the city, with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the
Mount of Olives to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing
pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate
Passover, and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured by the enemy.
After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city. To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered
deserters from the Jewish side to be
crucified around the city wall. By this time the Jews had been thoroughly exhausted by
famine, and when the weak third wall was breached bitter street fighting ensued. The Romans finally captured the
Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of
the Temple. According to Josephus, Titus had ordered that the Temple itself shouldn't be destroyed, but while the fighting around the gates continued a soldier hurled a torch inside one of the windows, which quickly set the entire building ablaze. The later Christian chronicler
Sulpicius Severus, possibly drawing on a lost portion of
Tacitus'
Histories, claims that Titus favoured destruction of the Temple. Whatever the case, the Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him
imperator in honor of the victory.
Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Gischala.
Heir to Vespasian
Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at
Caesarea Maritima and
Berytus, then travelled to
Zeugma on the
Euphrates, where he was presented with a crown by
Vologases I of Parthia. While visiting
Antioch he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city. On his way to
Alexandria, he stopped in
Memphis to consecrate the sacred bull
Apis. According to
Suetonius, this caused consternation; the ceremony required Titus to wear a
diadem, which the Romans associated with
kingship, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome – hoping, says Suetonius, to allay any suspicions about his conduct.
Upon his arrival in the city in
71, Titus was awarded a
triumph. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the
Menorah and the
Pentateuch. Simon Bar Giora was executed in the
Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the
Temple of Jupiter.
The
triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.
With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian likewise received the title of
Caesar from the Senate. In addition to sharing
tribunician power with his father, Titus held seven
consulships during Vespasian's reign and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf.
During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with
Berenice, sister of
Agrippa II. In
75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the Eastern Queen and disapproved of their relationship. When the pair was publicly denounced by
Cynics in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away, but his reputation further suffered.
Emperor
Succession
Vespasian died of an infection on
June 23 79 AD, and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus. Because of his many alleged
vices, many Romans feared at this point that he'd be another Nero. Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective emperor and was well-loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest
virtues instead of vices. which had long plagued the
principate. The law of
treason, or
maiestas law, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly 'impaired the people and majesty of Rome' by any
revolutionary action. Under
Augustus, however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover
slander or libellous writings as well,
Consequently, no
senators were put to death during his reign; The informants were publicly punished and
banished from the city, and Titus further prevented abuses by introducing legislation that made it unlawful for persons to be
tried under different laws for the same offense. resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the
Bay of Naples. The cities of
Pompeii and
Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and
lava, killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the
relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.
During the second visit a fire broke out in Rome which lasted for three days. As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of
Imperator for the fifteenth time.
His reign also saw the rebellion led by
Terentius Maximus, one of several
false Neros who continued to appear throughout the
70s. Although Nero was primarily known as a universally hated
tyrant—there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had in fact survived the assassination attempts were fueled by the vague circumstances surrounding his death and several
prophecies foretelling his return. According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the
lyre.
Public works
Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the
Colosseum, was begun in
70 under
Vespasian and finally completed in
80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the
Jewish wars. The
inaugural games lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including
gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (
elephants and
cranes), mock
naval battles for which the theatre was flooded,
horse races and
chariot races. During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (
clothing,
gold, or even
slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item. To further honor and glorify the
Flavian dynasty, foundations were laid for what would later become the
Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.
Death
At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as an emperor. where he died of a
fever, reportedly in the same farm-house as his father. Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: "I have made but one mistake".
Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death, and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words.
Philostratus writes that he was poisoned by Domitian with a
sea hare, and that his death had been foretold to him by
Apollonius of Tyana. Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead.
Legacy
Historiography
Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian.
The Wars of the Jews offers a first-hand,
eye-witness account on the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The
neutrality of
Josephus' writings has come into question however as he was heavily indebted to the
Flavians. In
71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a
Roman citizen and took on the Roman
nomen Flavius and
praenomen Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace. It was while in Rome, and under Flavian
patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known works.
The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt, portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganized, and even blaming the Jews for causing the war. The credibility of Josephus as a historian has subsequently come under fire.
Another contemporary of Titus was
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation.
The Histories—his account of this period—was published during the reign of
Trajan. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived until the present day, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reign entirely lost.
Suetonius Tranquilius gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus's reign in
The Lives of Twelve Caesars, emphasizing his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short describing him as follows:
Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor. dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus.
In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil opressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.
Titus in later arts
The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple.
Literature
- Bérénice, a play by Jean Racine (1670) which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice.
- Tite et Bérénice, a play by Pierre Corneille which was in competition with Racine the same year, and concerns the same subject matter.
- La clemenza di Tito, an opera by Mozart, about a fictional romance between Emperor Titus and Vitellia, daughter of Vitellius.
- The Josephus Trilogy, novels by Lion Feuchtwanger, about the life of Flavius Josephus and his relation with the Flavian dynasty.
- Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932
- Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935
- Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942
- The Marcus Didius Falco novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian.
- The Roman Mysteries, a series of children's books which take place during the reign of Titus.
- The High School Latin textbook series Ecce Romani takes place during the reign of Titus.
Paintings
- by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1846). Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. Neue Pinakothek, Munich. An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically centered around the figure of Titus.
- by Nicolas Poussin (1637). Oil on canvas, 147 x 198,5 cm. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus.
- by Francesco Hayez (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.
- by David Roberts (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Private collection. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus.
- by Giulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm. Louvre, Paris. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically features the Arch of Titus, which wasn't completed until the reign of Domitian.
- by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world. Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he'd only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.
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